The turbine expansion low-temperature liquid recovery system differs from the choke or valve expansion in that the turbine turns a shaft from which work is extracted. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. A typical turbo-expander process is The gas enters through an inlet separator with any liquid separated at this point being introduced to a low point in the stabilizer tower. The gas then goes through heat exchange with the cold gas leaving the stabilizer. Another separator is installed if sufficient liquid is formed in the gas-to-gas exchanger with the liquid being introduced at an intermediate point in the stabilizer. The cold gas then flows to the expander where the pressure is reduced and low temperature achieved. The gas and liquid mixture leaves the expander and flows to the separator that normally is on top of the stabilizer column. Sales gas flows back through the exchanger and may be compressed in the direct-connected centrifugal compressor before being put into the sales gas line. Since extremely low temperatures are reached in a typical turbo-expander plant, dehydration normally is a first step though some plants do use alcohol injection. Some more details of petroleum courses in Islamabad are as under. The gas frequently is expanded below sales gas pressure and then recompressed to make use of the work that must be extracted from the shaft of the turbine. The stabilizer is either a demethanizer or deethanizer with the mixed hydrocarbon product being sold. A fairly recent development in gas processing, the turbo-expander process is one of great simplicity and ease of operation. The favorable operating characteristics allow the plant to run unattended through long periods and its simplicity and relatively low investment cost make it an attractive option. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join oil field after petroleum courses in Rawalpindi.
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The Introduction brought us quickly from the very early days of the oil industry to today’s jack up drilling units, semisubmersibles, and drill ships. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. This section will discuss the planning, preparation, and equipment necessary to conduct a typical floating drilling operation . Focus will be primarily on floating drilling because operations from jackups, submersibles, and platforms generally follow land drilling practices. The last portion of the section will be devoted to special considerations, such as deep water and high-current drilling and considerations for cold and hostile environmental conditions. For a general discussion of the technology of offshore drilling, completion, and production. The culmination of the sometimes arduous and complex task of geologic evaluation of a potential offshore play is for the exploration geologist to put a finger on the map and say “drill here.” This decision sets in motion a series of actions that will eventually lead to the drilling of an offshore well. The first major step is to select a rig to drill the well. Because all rigs have specific operating criteria and limits, however, certain data must be known about the drillsite and surrounding area. Basic rig selection criteria consist of water depth, expected environmental conditions during the forecasted drilling period (wind, waves, current profile, and climatological conditions), distance from nearest dock facility, and availability of consumable supplies (such as drilling mud, cement, pipe, rental tools, and spare parts). Some more details of petroleum courses in islamabad are as under. Water Depth. A rough idea of the water depth is an important criterion for rig selection. If the water depth does not exceed approximately 350 ft, any of the three ma.jor rig types can be considered. Jackups can handle a water depth range from their shallow draft limit of 20 to 30 ft to a maximum depth of 350 ft. The maximum depth limitation is a function of other environmental constraints, such as wind, wave, and current conditions at the site. Severe conditions tend to lower the jackup rig’s maximum water-depth capacity. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join oil field after petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. . Much of the oil produced worldwide is accompanied by water in an emulsion that requires treating. Even in those fields where there is essentially no initial water production. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. water cuts may increase in time to the point where it is necessary to treat the emulsion. Water content of the untreated oil may vary from a fraction of I % to over 90%. To prevent increased transportation costs, water treatment and disposal costs, and deterioration of equipment, purchasers of crude oil limit the basic sediment and water (BSSCW) content of the oil they purchase. Limits vary depending on local conditions, practices. and contractual agreements and typically range from 0.2 to 3.0%. BY&W is usually predominantly water but may contain solids. The solids contained in the BS&W come from the producing formation and consist of sand. silt, mud, scale. And precipitates of dissolved solids. These troublesome solids vary widely from producing field to field. zone to zone, and well to well. Purchasers may also limit the salt content of the oil. Removing water from the stream decreases the salt content. Salt content along with BS&W are the two important crude purchasing requirements. Some more details of petroleum courses in Islamabad are as under. An emulsion is a heterogeneous liquid system consisting of two immiscible liquids with one of the liquids intimately dispersed in the form of droplets in the second liquid. An emulsion is distinguished from a simple dispersion of one liquid in another by the fact that, in an emulsion, the probability of coalescence of droplets on contact with one another is greatly reduced because of the presence of an emulsifier, which inhibits coalescence. Such inhibition is not present in a dispersion. The stability of the emulsion is controlled by the type and amount of surface-active agents and/or finely divided solids. which commonly act as emulsifying agents or emulsifiers. As shown in Fig. 19.1, these emulsifying agents form interfacial films around the droplets of the dispersed phase and create a barrier that slows down or prevents coalescence of the droplets. The matrix of an emulsion is called the external or continuous phase. The portion of the emulsion that is in the form of small droplets is called the internal, dispersed, or discontinuous phase. The emulsions considered in this chapter consist of crude oil and water or brine produced with it. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. The world has by and large seen many important revolutions that have changed the history of mankind. Indeed the greatest of the revolutions has been possible due to the groundbreaking discoveries that mankind has achieved and their continuous search for breakthroughs. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. The industries world wide have grown thanks to the industrial revolution that swept the world centuries back. In the same way the space revolution started with the Russian's and the American's adventures in space and on the moon. It is to be noted that, many revolutions have been in reality been fuelled due to the mankind's constant search for economic prosperity and stability. For this very reason the scientific community across the world has taken very giant strides when it comes to making scientific discoveries, that help mankind in their day today activities. In a similar way the discovery of the Petroleum has resulted in a very big revolution for the world wide economy. Some more details of petroleum courses in Islamabad are as under. Petroleum has become a commodity that has indeed changed the way humans lead their lives by contributing to a multitude of products in the form of by products that has been derived from this magical commodity. The petroleum has thus gained international status as the fossil fuel that can very well make or break a country's economy. As a result of this the countries all across the world have been in constant search for finding out the petroleum reserves within their very boundaries. This trend of petroleum exploration worldwide has been much due to the economic prosperity that is being enjoyed by most of the countries which possess this golden commodity. Though in the past most of the countries used to import this precious fossil fuel, the prices for this fuel has skyrocketed due to its increasing demand in the international market. It is due to this reason that most of the countries worldwide are now doing petroleum exploration to drill out this fossil fuel from the natural reserves that they possess. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. Scaffolding is one of the most prominent components that form part of any industrial or construction project. Irrespective of the scale of the project, scaffolding happens to be an essential structure that is erected for a variety of different purposes during the development process. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. In its essence, scaffolding is a rudimentary structure which can be used for many different purposes. It can be seen erected during repair and maintenance work especially in large and elevated structures. This is why it is extremely important to develop a comprehensive understanding of scaffolding. In order to ensure that you set up an appropriate structure, whether rented or purchased, for your construction project, you need to have a good understanding and in-depth knowledge about scaffolding. Some more details of petroleum courses in Islamabad are as under. At the same time it is extremely important to take the various safety precautions into consideration when looking to make use of such a structure. As it is the construction industry is prone to mishaps and accidents related to the improper use of scaffolding structures and the downright failure to follow the required safety procedures. Scaffolding erectors construct the structure out of wood or steel. Following the development of the framework a construction platform has to be placed at different elevations along the structure. This allows workers to access the strategic points easily in order to conduct the required work at a specific place. Such a scaffolding structure is characterized by flat ends and the work courses which are necessary to construct in order to enhance support for the structure. This helps to provide stability to the worker's platform. It is important to understand that even the independent scaffolding structure needs to be tied to the working site at different levels so that it remains stable throughout its height. The mobile scaffolding structures are distinctively different with respects to the fact that they are totally freestanding. They can be mounted on wheels or casters and moved from one location to another. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. Offshore petroleum operations emerged in the 20th century and brought new dimensions of challenge and excitement to oil exploration and production. When a structure taller than a lOO-story building is launched from a barge, or when a small city is built and placed offshore in 2 years, those involved deserve their feelings of pride and accomplishment. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. In nearly every corner of the globe, thousands of offshore installations with payloads from 5 to 50,000 tons are producing gas and oil today in water depths from 10 to 1,000 ft. Although subjected to winds and waves up to hurricane intensity, earthquakes, sheet ice, severe tides and currents, or shifting foundations, surprisingly few structures have succumbed to the environment despite the difficulty in predicting environmental forces, equipment failure, or reservoir behavior. This chapter can only scratch the surface of offshore operations; detailed procedures for design and construction of structures, equipment, and facilities would require volumes. Furthermore, such volumes would be obsolete before they were published. Because there is no concise reference or set of references, this chapter describes the fundamentals of standard practice in several disciplines and offers guidance for the selection of appropriate offshore codes of practice and technical references. Some more details of petroleum courses in islamabad are as under. The industry has constructed 26 sand and gravel islands for exploratory drilling in water depths to 100 ft. Several caisson-retaining systems have been implemented to speed construction and to reduce the fill requirements for the islands. Beyond 100 ft, drillships have been used, but they operate only during the ice-free summer, a floating conical drilling unit was deployed in the Canadian Beaufort Sea. The unit is capable of resisting early winter ice loads, hence extending the drilling season to 6 months a year. At the current time, at least four major Arctic marine projects are in the planning phases: the Arctic Pilot Project in the Canadian Arctic Islands, the Arctic Marine Hydrocarbon Production Project in the Canadian Beaufort Sea, the Endicott Development nearshore U.S. Beaufort Sea, and the Hibernia Development off the east coast of Canada. Permanent production platforms, subsea pipelines, icebreaking tankers, supply vessels, and evacuation systems are a few of the facilities being developed. In summary, though the offshore industry has come a long way since the wooden pier days of Summerland, the technological requirements have barely been addressed. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. The procedure given here is the API method currently in effect for running a field tank of crude oil. Since there are many variables that would alter this method, this procedure is applicable on/~) under specific conditions. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. The tank is vertical, no pressurized, fixed roof with side outlets, and it is to be gauged by the innate method. The oil is less than 100 seconds at 100°F (Saybolt universal viscosity) and is a liquid at atmospheric temperature and pressure. A cup case thermometer is used to read temperature of the oil in the tank.. A thief is used to obtain fluid samples from the tank.. The API gravity scale hydrometer test method is used to determine the API gravity of the oil; the temperature of the oil has to be near 60°F (* 5°F).. The water and sediment in the oil is to be determined by the centrifuge method with a 203-mm [8-in.] cone-shaped tube. Some more details of petroleum courses in Islamabad are as under. The following outline gives the sequence of steps to betaken and the key points to be noted at each step. . Isolate the tank to be checked.. Use face mask and fresh air bottles if H2S hazard exists. Ground your body to stair railing or tank shell before reaching the top. This prevents static electrical discharge in a hazardous area. . Stand to the side of the hatch when opening to permit wind to blow gas away from face.. Measure temperature. Suspend thermometer in oil tank. Thermometer should be 12 in. or more from tank shell and must be immersed in oil for 5 minutes. Use an ASTM-approved, wood-back or corrosion resistant metal cup case. If atmospheric temperature differs by more than 20°F from that of the liquid in the tank, the cup case should be given at least two preliminary immersions. Empty the cup case after each immersion. Rapidly withdraw the thermometer and read and record the temperature to the nearest 1°F. Note: The number of temperature measurements varies with the depth of the liquid. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. The presence of acid gases, H2 S and/or C02, in natural gas is undesirable from many standpoints. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. Perhaps the principal objection is the corrosion that results when free water is present. For this reason the H 2s and CO1 normally are removed at the wellhead or relatively close to it. There are a number of systems that can be used for removal of acid gases. Sweetening by Ethanolamines. Perhaps the most widely used type of acid-gas-removal system involves the use of an ethanolamine. A simplified flow diagram of a typical ethanolamine-type desulfurization unit is In this process a solution of water and ethanolamine that may vary from about 15 to 60 wt% ethanolamine is used for removing HzS and CO? from the incoming gas stream. The process is based on the principle that the acid gases, HzS and CO2, will react with the ethanolamine at ordinary temperatures. The reaction can be reversed by reducing the pressure and heating the solution. The sour gas passes up through the contactor and the lean ethanolamine solution passes downward. The foul solution is discharged from the bottom of the contactor and flows through a heat exchanger before it discharges into the top of the still or regenerator column. The ethanolamine solution is boiled by application of heat in the rebuilder This boiling action supplies vapors, primarily steam, that pass up through the still column sweeping the H2S and CO;? from the ethanolamine solution. Some more details of petroleum courses in Islamabad are as under. The regenerated ethanolamine leaves the recoiled and passes through the amine-to-amine heat exchanger into a storage tank from which it is recalculated to the contactor with the amine pump. The H2 S and CO? leaving the top of the still column have a large volume of steam with them. To keep down the quantity of makeup water required and to minimize ethanolamine losses the overhead product usually is cooled. The water condensed in this cooling is returned to the regenerator as reflux. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. Water vapor also can be removed from natural gas by use of a solid desiccant as an adsorption medium. The adsorption process is a very complex phenomenon involving transfer of the component adsorbed from the gas phase to contact with the solid. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. For this reason the most effective adsorbents have extremely large surface areas per unit of mass. This means that their surface is honeycombed with capillaries that serve to provide the necessary surface area. A flow sheet of a typical dry desiccant dehydration unit is shown in Fig. 14.22. There must be at least two desiccant beds for continuous operation because adsorption is a batch process. The main gas stream flows through an inlet separator where all free liquids are removed. Any liquids can be harmful to the dehydration process. Free water will reduce the capacity of the unit if not removed. Hydrocarbons can poison the bed if not properly regenerated. The main gas stream then flows through a pressure-reducing valve that controls the flow of the regeneration gas by inducing a pressure drop in the main gas stream. The gas then flows through one of the two adsorption towers where it contacts the desiccant and the water vapors are removed. The main gas stream flows to the sales gas line through a gas-to-gas heat exchanger where heat is removed from the regeneration gas. Some more details of petroleum courses in Islamabad are as under. The second adsorption tower is regenerated while the other tower adsorbs water vapor from the main gas stream. Regeneration gas (approximately 10 to 15% of the total gas flow) is taken from the main gas stream upstream of the pressure reducing valve and passed through a heater where the temperature is raised to approximately 450°F. The hot gas then passes through the desiccant bed. The water adsorbed through the bed is vaporized and swept out of the bed by the regeneration gas. The hot, wet regeneration gas passes through the gas-to-gas exchanger where it is cooled by the main gas stream. The water condensed from the gas is separated in the regeneration gas scrubber. The regeneration gas flows into the main gas stream downstream of the pressure-reducing valve. Because of the regeneration gas flow, the pressure drop through a solid desiccant dehydration unit will be higher than for a TEG unit and will be approximately 25 psi for the system. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. The removal of water from natural gas with organic liquid desiccants has become one of the most widely accepted methods of dehydration. Technical Data used in the field explained in petroleum courses in Islamabad. Though a large number of organic materials can be used as liquid desiccants, by far the most generally used are the ethylene glycols. Ethylene glycol (EG), ethylene glycol (DEG), triethylene glycol (TEG), and tetra ethylene glycol (TRG) all can be satisfactorily used for dehydration of natural gas. However, by far the most widely used and generally accepted is TEG. Figure 14.19 shows a schematic flow sheet for absorption dehydration of natural gas using an ethylene glycol. The flow sheet will vary little from one glycol to the next. Wet gas enters the absorber and flows up through a series of plates coming into contact with the concentrated glycol solution. The glycol removes from 75 to 95 % of the incoming water vapor in the gas, depending on the efficiency of the overall system. This lowers the dew point of the gas and the dehydrated gas leaves the absorber top and flows to the sales gas line. There are practical limitations to using TEG for dehydration from both a dehydration-efficiency and an operating-cost standpoint. The lower the temperature in the contactor, the greater the viscosity of the glycol solution. As the viscosity of the solution increases, the efficiency of the contactor decreases, which results in less water-vapor removal per stage or plate. At temperatures below 50”F, a pronounced reduction in efficiency has been observed. At temperatures approaching the freezing point of water, the TEG solution becomes so viscous that the liquid is all but impossible to move through the system. Some more details of petroleum courses in islamabad are as under. As the contact temperature increases, the vapor pressure of the solution increases, which results in higher vaporization losses of glycol and higher outlet water content of the gas. If the contactor temperature is increased to 120°F the vapor pressure of a 99-wt% glycol TEG solution will be almost twice what it is at 100°F with consequently larger vapor losses of the circulating solution. There is no reasonable pressure limitation on the use of TEG for dehydration. However, the maximum dew point depression appears to increase with pressure up to about 500 psi and then remains essentially constant for higher pressures. Dehydration units have been designed and operated satisfactorily at pressures as high as 2,000 psi. TSK Training for Skills and Knowledge is the best institute in Rawalpindi Islamabad for Pakistani Students who wants to join oil field after petroleum courses in Rawalpindi. |
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